Article

Uniqueness of Layered Double Hydroxide Materials: A Critical Review

of Synthesis Methods, Properties, Composites, and Remediation

Mechanism

Normah Normah^1*, Melantina Oktriyanti²

, Nurmalina Adhiyanti¹, Happy Bunga

Nasyirahul Sajidah¹

¹Departement of Chemistry, Universitas Indo Global Mandiri, Palembang, Indonesia

²Chemical Engineering Department, Politeknik Negeri Sriwijaya, Palembang, Indonesia

Abstract

Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) are anionic clays with tunable structures, high surface areas, and

versatile ion-exchange properties, making them promising for environmental remediation. This review

highlights recent advances in LDH synthesis methods, structural properties, composite design, and

remediation mechanisms. Synthetic techniques such as coprecipitation, hydrothermal treatment, sol-gel,

and urea hydrolysis are evaluated for their impact on morphology, stability, and functionality. Integration

of LDH with carbon materials, metal oxides, polymers, and MOFs improves their performance in

environmental remediation. A key theme is the "memory effect" of LDH, which enables reversible

structural transformations, enhancing ion-exchange and adsorption capacities. The pollutant removal

mechanisms involve ion exchange, adsorption, and photocatalysis. Current challenges include scalability

and regeneration. Sustainable synthesis methods and characterization of multifunctional composites are

discussed to advance the development of LDH for efficient water and wastewater treatment.

Keywords: Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH); LDH composites; Advanced materials; Properties modification;

Enviromental remediation

*

Corresponding author

Email addresses: normah@uigm.ac.id

DOI: https://doi.org/10.22437/chp.v9i2.46671

Received July 07^th2025; Accepted October 22^nd2025; Available online November 25^th2025

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 )

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Graphical Abstract

Introduction

The characteristics of LDH make them highly

promising for applications as catalysts and

adsorbents in wastewater treatment, owing

Layered double hydroxides (LDH), also

known as anionic clay materials, have

attracted attention due to their distinctive

to

their

straightforward

preparation

process. Beyond their role in wastewater

treatment, LDH find diverse applications in

properties.

Harnessing

its

distinctive

properties, LDH has the potential to be

applied in the environment, energy, and

biomedical. LDH are commonly synthesized

using inorganic salts and the addition of

water or organic solvents. Achieving optimal

results necessitates precise control of both

pH and temperature to induce precipitation

and crystal growth [1]. The LDH formed

under these controlled conditions exhibit a

distinctive 2D layered structure [2]. Layered

LDH structures, synthesized through a

combination of multi-metal compositions

and interlayer anions, can confer desirable

properties such as enhanced surface area,

phase purity, porosity, and crystallinity [11–

13]. Furthermore, LDH showcase unique

photocatalysis,

oxygen/hydrogen evolution, energy storage,

coatings, biomedical applications, and

supercapacitors [18–22]. In addition to their

effectiveness in wastewater treatment, LDH

CO₂

capture,

demonstrate

capabilities for various inorganic and organic

pollutants, including dyes, metals,

pesticides, phosphates, and CO₂[14].

excellent

adsorption

Numerous reports in the literature delve into

the modification of LDH, employing various

techniques.

Intercalation

methods,

exemplified by Xu et al. [15] and Chen et al.

[16], and composite approaches, researched

by Gu et al. [10], Jiang et al. [7], and Kumari

et al. [17] represent key strategies in

characteristics, including high

chemical

stability, ion exchange capability, structure

memory effect, reactive interlayer space,

catalytic activity, specific surface area,

biocompatibility, and modifiable hydroxide

layer or structural interlayer composition

[12,14–16].

research development.

In

a

specific

application, Mg-Al LDH were modified by

intercalating nitrate ions into the LDH

interlayer, serving as an effective adsorbent

for removing methyl orange dyes [18].

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Based on the research by Elanchezhiyan &

Meenakshi [19] synthesized a chitosan/Mg-

Al composite using the coprecipitation

method in a separate study focused on

Fundamental Structure and Chemistry of

LDH

LDH, often referred to as multi-metal clay

materials and exhibit layered structures

resembling hydrotalcite/brucite in 2D. LDH

consist of divalent and trivalent metal

cations, with the general formula 1.

enhancing

adsorption

capacity.

When

employed as an adsorbent for removing oil

particles from oil-in-water emulsions, this

composite

exhibited

a

remarkable

adsorption capacity of 78%, a substantial

improvement compared to LDH (30%). The

mechanism of the adsorption was attributed

to hydrophobic-hydrophobic interactions. In

summary, these findings highlight the

diverse modification techniques for LDH and

showcase the promising application of the

chitosan/Mg-Al composite for efficient oil

[M^IIM^IIIx(OH)₂]^x+·[An^-x/n.mH₂O]...........(1)

1-x

where, M^IIrepresents divalent metallic

cations (e.g., Ni, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu), M^IIIincludes

trivalent metallic cations (e.g., Al, Fe, Cr), and

An- indicating negatively charged interlayer

LDH anions (figure 1) [1–5]. The octahedral

layers, adopting a brucite-like structure

particle

removal

through

enhanced

reminiscent

of Mg(OH)₂,

form

the

adsorption capacity.

fundamental framework of LDH. These

positively charged layers are stacked with

This article explores the unique structural

interlayer

spaces

containing

charge-

and

chemical

characteristics

of

LDH

compensating anions and water molecules.

A variety of interlayer anions can be

incorporated during synthesis, including

carbonate, nitrate, chloride, sulfate, or even

materials,

adaptable

applications.

which

for

By

make

various

selecting

them

environmental

appropriate

highly

synthesis methods, researchers can fine-

tune the morphology and interlayer

more

complex

organic

anions

[25].

This interplay between the octahedral metal

hydroxide layers and the exchangeable

interlayer anions gives LDH their tunable

physicochemical properties, making them

chemistry of LDH and create multifunctional

composites with tailored properties. These

advancements open up opportunities to

improve structural stability, increase surface

area, and boost pollutant removal efficiency.

However, most current studies are still

conducted under controlled laboratory

settings and have not yet been widely tested

versatile

platforms

for

functional

modifications [26-27] .

The

structural

flexibility

enables anion

exchange, intercalation, and post-synthesis

functionalization, allowing LDH to host a

wide range of inorganic and organic species

within their interlayer galleries. A distinctive

and scientifically significant property of LDH

is their structural reconstruction behavior,

widely known as the “memory effect”. When

LDH are calcined at elevated temperatures

on

real

wastewater

systems.

Moving

forward, research should aim to build a

clearer understanding of structure–function

relationships, adopt sustainable and low-

cost strategies, evaluate performance under

realistic

develop

environmental

conditions, and

regenerable

hierarchical

composites that can be applied on a larger

scale.

(typically

dehydroxylation

interlayer anions, resulting in the formation

500–800°C),

they

decomposition

undergo

and

of

mixed

metal

when

oxides

these

(LDOs)

LDOs

[28].

are

Remarkably,

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Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

subsequently exposed to water containing

appropriate anions, they can spontaneously

reconstruct their original layered structure

through a rehydration process.

Figure 1. Schematic structure of LDH

This

reconstruction

phenomenon

has

acids, and peptides into the LDH

profound implications in environmental and

catalytic applications:

interlayer, making this

strategy for synthesizing functional LDH-

based composites [31]. Anion

a

valuable

1. Ion-Exchange

Activation

through

Incorporation: The reconstruction route

also enables efficient incorporation of

Memory Effect: When LDH is calcined, it

transforms into mixed metal oxides

(LDO). Upon rehydration in aqueous

solutions containing appropriate anions,

the LDO can spontaneously reconstruct

guest

anions

including

organic

molecules, amino acids, and peptides

into the LDH interlayer, making this a

valuable

strategy

for

synthesizing

its

original

layered

structure,

a

functional LDH-based composites.

3. Anion Incorporation: The reconstruction

step also enables efficient incorporation

phenomenon known as the memory

effect. This reconstructed LDH phase

reactivates

ion-exchange

processes,

of guest

anions including organic

allowing target cations such as Cd²⁺,

Pb²⁺, or Cu²⁺ to replace Mg²⁺ within the

layers during pollutant removal [29],

[30]. Recent studies have shown that this

molecules, amino acids, and peptides

into the LDH interlayer, making this a

valuable

strategy

for

synthesizing

functional LDH-based composites.

effect

significantly

enhances

the

adsorption capacity and regeneration

efficiency of LDH-based materials during

repeated treatment cycles.

Overall, the fundamental structure and

chemical

their reconstructive structural behavior are

key to understanding their synthesis,

versatility of

LDH

particularly

2. Enhanced Adsorption and Regeneration:

The reconstruction route also enables

efficient incorporation of guest anions

including organic molecules, amino

modification strategies, and environmental

remediation mechanisms discussed in the

following sections.

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Synthesis Methods

Figure 2 . In studies conducted by Edañol et

al. [34], Normah et al. [37] and Wijaya et al.

[38], the XRD patterns of Ni/Cr LDH matched

the standard hydrotalcite-like phase (JCPDS

The

crystallinity,

morphology,

layer

arrangement, and anion content of LDH are

all determined by the synthesis process, and

these factors ultimately affect how well they

function in different applications. A vast

array of synthesis methods, from traditional

52-1626), with

characteristic diffraction

peaks at 2θ ≈ 11° (003), 23° (006), 35° (015),

and 60° (110), indicating the formation of

well-ordered layered structures. FTIR spectra

exhibited broad O-H stretching bands at

3400-3600 cm^-1and a water vibration band

at 1630 cm^-1, confirming the presence of

wet-chemical

methods

to

more

environmentally friendly and sustainable

approaches, have been developed over the

last few decades. Regarding structural

control, scalability, cost, and environmental

impact, each approach has pros and cons of

its own.

interlayer hydroxyl

groups

and

water

molecules. A band at 1383 cm^-1indicated the

-

presence of interlayer NO₃anions, while

bands

in

the

500-1000

cm^-1

region

corresponded to M-O-M vibrations (M = Ni,

Cr). These features collectively verify the

successful formation of NiCr-LDH through

co-precipitation.

Co-presipitation Method

The co-precipitation method is one of the

simplest and most commonly employed

synthesis techniques for layered double

hydroxides (LDH). In this approach, the

synthesis is typically carried out under a

controlled pH condition, which is adjusted

according to the divalent and trivalent metal

cations involved. Generally, solutions of

divalent and trivalent metal salts are mixed

in a molar ratio of 3:1. To maintain a stable

pH during synthesis, a sodium hydroxide

(NaOH) solution is slowly added to the

mixture. According to Bünning et al. [32] and

Boulaiche et al. [6], the synthesis involves

maintaining a flow of nitrogen or argon gas

to minimize the potential presence of

carbonates within the LDH interlayer. After

the solution preparation, the mixture is

heated at 80°C for 20 h, by the procedures

Amirahmadi et al. [39], emphasized that the

co-precipitation

method

offers

several

advantages, including the production of LDH

with high purity and good crystallinity.

However, the formation of well-crystallized

hydrotalcite

structures

or

amorphous

phases is influenced by several parameters,

such as solution concentration, pH, ionic

strength, cation concentration, temperature,

aging time, and the molar ratio of metal

cations. Therefore, careful optimization of

these synthesis parameters is essential to

obtain LDH with well-defined structures and

desirable physicochemical properties.

Hydrothermal Treatment

outlined

[30–32].

Subsequently,

the

Because it can produce highly crystalline

suspension is separated, and the drying

process is conducted at 50°C until complete

dryness, as described by [36].

materials

with

controlled

structural

characteristics, the hydrothermal method is

often used for the synthesis of layered

double hydroxides (LDH). This process

typically involves heating a metal precursor

solution (M²⁺/M³⁺) to temperatures above

100 °C in a Teflon-lined stainless steel

autoclave. Since each LDH has an optimal

heating time, the temperature and duration

The successful synthesis of LDH structures

via the co-precipitation method is typically

confirmed through X-ray diffraction (XRD)

and

Fourier-transform

infrared

spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis as shown in

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Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

of the hydrothermal treatment significantly

affect the crystallinity and crystal size of the

LDH. These factors include crystallinity, layer

density, and crystal size [20], [40], [41].

Figure 2. FT-IR Spectra (a), XRD patterns (b) of NiCr-LDH and NiCr-SA. Reproduced with

permission from Ref. [38]. Copyright Elsevier, 2025.

LDH

precipitation of divalent and trivalent metal

ions, facilitated by adding alkaline

formation

occurs

through

the

capacity. Despite these benefits, the sol–gel

method is often associated with drawbacks

such as a relatively complex experimental

procedure and extended synthesis times,

which can limit its scalability [47], [48].

compounds such as NaOH, NH₄OH, or urea

[42]. The hydrothermal methods pH, crucial

in determining the growth of LDH layers,

varies with different metal cations, requiring

specific pH levels for precipitation [43]. The

formation of LDH phases occurs within the

pH range of 8.7 to 12. Furthermore, the

crystallinity, morphology, and structural

properties of the synthesized LDH are

strongly influenced by the kinds and molar

ratios of metal cations as well as the type of

interlayer anions [39–41].

In the study conducted by Takanashi et al.

[47] the sol–gel method was implemented by

initially mixing divalent and trivalent metal

cations in a 3:1 molar ratio in solution. After

adding citric acid as a complexing agent, the

mixture was agitated at 80 °C for an hour.

After adding ethylene glycol, the mixture was

constantly swirled at 150 °C until all of the

solvent had evaporated, creating a viscous

gel. To get the finished product, this gel was

then calcined at 650 °C for 4 h and dried at

105 °C for twenty-four h. This process shows

how the sol-gel method can create LDH

Sol-Gel Method

The sol-gel method is viable for LDH

synthesis, offering precise control over

crystal formation. A vital advantage of this

method is the enhanced specific surface

area achieved by creating pores within the

particles by elevating their overall porosity.

This results in an increased quantity of

materials

with

specific

structural

and

textural characteristics that are appropriate

for cutting-edge uses.

Urea Hydrolysis

The urea hydrolysis method is a well-

anions

in

the

interlayers

of

LDH,

established

approach

for

synthesizing

consequently bolstering its anion adsorption

layered double hydroxides (LDH), offering

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advantages such as high crystallinity and

uniform particle size distribution .Based on

the research results Viscusia et al. [44] and

Brahma et al. [45], the detailed synthesis of

LDH using the urea hydrolysis method

involves mixing magnesium nitrate salt

(Mg(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O) as a divalent metal and

aluminum nitrate salt (Al(NO₃)₃∙9H₂O) as a

trivalent metal in a 1:2 ratio, stirring until

homogeneous. Subsequently, a solution

comprising 0.035 urea (NH₂CONH₂) and 150

mL deionized water is added continuously to

the nitrate salt mixture over 30 min. The pH

is adjusted to 10 by introducing a sodium

hydroxide (NaOH) solution.

additional peaks for the (012), (015), and

(018) planes, indicating

layered structure. Furthermore,

a

well-defined

the

presence of sharp and symmetrical peaks

corresponding to the [110] and [113] planes

suggests excellent dispersion of metal ions

within

the

hydroxide

layers.

These

observations are consistent with the findings

of Viscusi. [49] and Liu et al. [44] confirming

the high crystallinity of ZnAl LDH produced

through the urea hydrolysis method.

Overall, the crystallinity, morphology, and

functional performance of LDH materials are

influenced by the distinct benefits and

drawbacks of each synthesis technique.

Although co-precipitation is straightforward

and scalable, it is extremely sensitive to

reaction conditions and pH, which can result

in amorphous phases [38], [56]. Although it

necessitates longer synthesis times and

specialized equipment, the hydrothermal

method produces highly crystalline LDH [57]

and provides excellent control over layer

growth and morphology [58]. Although sol-

gel processes are complicated and have

limited scalability, they yield materials with

high porosity and surface area that are

appropriate for adsorption [59]. Although it

takes longer to react, urea hydrolysis

produces high crystallinity and a uniform

particle size distribution

According to Aladpoosh & Montazer. [51],

the combined use of urea and NaOH helps

prevent

the

formation

of

locally

inhomogeneous

concentrated

particles

during precipitation, which in turn promotes

the formation of LDH with high crystallinity,

larger crystal size, and uniform particle size

distribution [52]. The homogeneous solution

is then transferred into a tightly sealed

hydrothermal autoclave and heated in an

oven at 110°C for 24 h. Guo et al. [54]

reported that the optimal temperature

range for LDH synthesis using this method is

typically 80-130 °C, with a synthesis time of

4-12 h. Higher synthesis temperatures have

been shown to accelerate crystal growth

rates in accordance with crystal growth

theory. After hydrothermal treatment, the

Composite of LDH

system is

allowed

to

cool

to room

In exploring LDH characteristics, structural

flexibility emerges as a pivotal factor driving

numerous modifications, enabling LDH to

take on various forms and structures to

achieve optimal conditions. Several vital

aspects come into play when considering the

modification of LDH characteristics. Firstly,

the ease of modification involves altering the

temperature. The resulting precipitate is

then separated by centrifugation and

washed repeatedly with deionized water (up

to five times) to remove residual ions. Finally,

the product is dried at 70 °C for 12 h to

obtain the final LDH material [50].

Liu et al. [55] conducted X-ray diffraction

(XRD) analysis on ZnAl LDH synthesized via

the urea hydrolysis method and observed

distinct diffraction peaks corresponding to

the (003) and (006) planes, as well as

structural

or

interlayer

composition,

expanding beyond binary metal cation

combinations to include more complex

ternary and quaternary metal combinations.

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Secondly, incorporating various guest anion

species between LDH layers is a crucial

avenue for modification. This includes a wide

range of inorganic anions, such as halides,

selection of support materials for composite

formation and the utilization of synthesis

methods capable of achieving desired

chemical

characteristics, including surface area and

basal layer spacing. Research results

demonstrate that LDH has undergone

diverse modifications by incorporating

and

physical

property

non-metal

anions, complex anionic transition metal

species, and organic anions like

biomolecules and polymers [60,61].

oxoanions,

polyoxometalate

various carbon types or organic compounds

such as cellulose, chitosan, biochar, and

graphite. A comprehensive summary of the

data from these diverse studies is available

in Table 1.

Moreover, LDH structural modifications can

be precisely customized for specific

purposes by employing composite synthesis

methods. This involves the strategic

Table 1. Composite of LDH by various research groups.

Surfaces

Synthesis

methods

Typical

Application

Materials

area

References

[49]

(m²)

Zn/Al Cellulose

ZrO₂/MgAl-LDH

MgCoAl-CO₃-LDH

-

Urea

Hydrolysis

-

Urea

Hydrolysis

Adsorption

-

[50]

55.08

Co-

precipitation

[36]

UVSA-ZNAL/PP composite

fiber

Co-

precipitation

[44]

Ni/Al functionalized humic

acid and magnetite

62.966

Co-

precipitation

Adsorption

Catalyst

[62]

NiCo-LDH/NiFe-LDH

-

Hydrothermal

treatment

[11]

Pistachio

biochar/CoFe₂O₄/Mn-Fe-LDH

Co-

precipitation

Photocatalytic

Photothermal

Coating

[9]

CNFs/ZnAl-LDH Composite

films

[13]

LDH-Albumin-WO₃composite

Co-

[63]

precipitation

FeMg-LDH@bentonite

Graphene/LDH

-

Co-deposition

-

Adsorption

[64]

[10]

Energy

storage

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Surfaces

area

Synthesis

methods

Typical

Application

Materials

References

[65]

(m²)

GO/Mg-Al LDH

NiAl-Biochar

NiAl-Graphite

-

Hydrothermal

treatment

Coating

438.942

21.595

Co-

precipitation

Adsorption

[33]

Co-

[33]

precipitation

NiCo-LDH/C/GF composite

LDH nanomaterials

-

[66]

[67]

[39]

[68]

-

Photocatalytic

Biomedical

Adsorption

Fe₃O₄@SiO₂@NiAl-LDH

-

Solvothermal

Pomelo peel Biochar/MgFe-

LDH

20.995

Co-

Precipitation

Numerous studies consistently affirm that

LDH composite materials showcase superior

characteristics compared to pure LDH.

According to Gu et al. [10], graphene/LDH

composites display exceptional properties,

Based on the research by Bian et al. [71], it

is evident that MgFe-LDH@biochars stand

out by exhibiting the largest specific surface

area, coupled with excellent magnetic

responsiveness and increased adsorption

capacity. This observation aligns with the

including

mechanical strength, and robust chemical

reactivity, facilitating electron transfer.

These findings significantly bolster the

potential applications of LDH in

electrochemistry.

high

electrical

conductivity,

findings

from

Fang

et

al.

[72],

the

enhancement of physicochemical properties

in LDH-BC composites was demonstrated

through

various

treatments.

These

treatments include magnetic treatment, acid

treatment, alkali treatment, control of metal

ion ratios, LDH intercalation, and calcination

processes. Such comprehensive approaches

highlight the versatility and potential of

For example, research conducted by Zheng

et al. [70] on the hierarchy of NiCo-LDH

core/shell structures unveils a notable

combination of large surface area and open

electrochemical active sites. The study

these

treatments

in

tailoring

LDH-BC

composite

properties

for

specific

reports

2640.2 F/g, emphasizing that LDH composite

materials exhibit outstanding

electrochemical performance, particularly

the hierarchy of NiCo-LDH core/shell

a

maximum capacity reaching

applications [9].

The research highlights the significant

influence of the synthesis method on the

success of LDH composite formation. Bian et

structures. These findings further fortify the

argument for the broad and impactful

al.

pyrolysis method in LDH/BC synthesis can

significantly enhance adsorption and

catalytic performance by generating a larger

[73] reported that employing the co-

applications

of

LDH

composites

in

electrochemistry.

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Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

surface area. This improvement is attributed

to the release of water molecules between

layers, which promotes the formation of

particles than the raw peel (Figure 3a), which

has a flat surface with uneven particle sizes

and rough textures. LDH–Hc composites,

including Ni/Al-Hc (c), Cu/Al-Hc (d), and Zn/Al-

Hc (e), exhibit a high degree of aggregation

along with rough, uneven surface textures,

irregular pores, and large pore sizes. These

LDH/BC

composites

with

abundant

functional groups, mixed metal oxides, and

LDH particles exhibiting high crystallinity and

uniform particle size.

morphological

advantageous

adsorption and surface reactivity.

characteristics

improving

are

pollutant

SEM analysis, as reported by several

researchers, is commonly used to examine

the surface morphology of LDH composites.

For example, Figure 3 illustrates the typical

morphological transformation of rambutan

peel-derived carbon (Hc) before and after

LDH incorporation [73]. Because lignin and

cellulose degrade during carbonization, the

carbonized rambutan peel (Figure 3b)

displays more spherical and homogeneous

for

To provide a clearer overview of the various

LDH composite systems reported in the

literature, Table 2 summarizes the types of

support

materials,

synthesis

methods,

enhanced properties, and their typical

applications.

Figure 3. SEM image of Rambutan peel (a), Hc (b), Ni/Al-Hc (c), Cu/Al-Hc (d), and Zn/Al-Hc (e).

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright Environment and Natural Resources

Journal 2022.

From Table 2, it is evident that the choice of

support material and synthesis method

plays a decisive role in determining the

introduce abundant functional groups, and

improve electron transfer, making them

ideal for adsorption and electrochemical

applications. Inorganic supports like metal

structure

composites. Carbon-based supports, such as

graphene, biochar, and cellulose,

significantly enhance the surface area [78],

and

functionality

of

LDH

oxides

and

bentonite

contribute

to

improved thermal stability and catalytic

activity, whereas polymeric matrices provide

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better

processability

and

mechanical

but also precise control of synthesis

flexibility. These trends clearly indicate that

tailoring LDH composites requires not only

the careful selection of support materials

methods

multifunctional

environmental applications.

to

achieve

performance

enhanced

for

Table 2. Summary of LDH Composites: Support Types, Synthesis Methods, Properties, and

Applications

Synthesis

methods

Key Improved Properties

Support Material

References

Cellulose

Urea Hydrolysis,

Co-precipitation

Biocompatibility, structural

flexibility, increased dispersion of

LDH layers

[75]

Metal Oxides (e.g.

ZrO₂, WO₃, SiO₂)

Urea Hydrolysis,

Co-precipitation

Enhanced catalytic activity,

improved thermal stability

[50], [76]

[77], [78]

Biochar/Hydrochar

Co-precipitation

Increased surface area, additional

functional groups, magnetic

responsiveness

Graphene/GO

Co-precipitation,

Hydrothermal

High electrical conductivity,

enhanced surface area, improved

structural stability

[79], [79]

Polymeric matrices

Co-precipitation

Improved processability and

mechanical strength

[80], [81]

[66], [82]

Hierarchical LDH

structures (e.g.,

NiCo-LDH)

Hydrothermal

method

Large surface area, open

electrochemical active sites,

enhanced conductivity

Hybrid LDH-

Carbon-metal

composites

Solvothermal

Multifunctionality: adsorption +

photocatalysis + redox activity

[83], [84]

Mechanism of Remediation

affecting aquatic ecosystems and human

health.

With the ongoing industrial developments,

numerous environmental impacts require

careful consideration. Among the primary

concerns is the direct discharge of waste into

the environment, particularly when it leads

to water pollution. In the literature, various

organic and inorganic pollutants have been

reported, posing environmental threats due

to their toxic and mutagenic nature,

Various remediation methods have been

proposed

to

address

this

issue,

encompassing adsorption, ion exchange,

biological treatment, membrane filtration,

and photocatalysis. LDH emerges as a

material with promising applications in these

remediation processes, given its unique

properties that have captured the interest of

researchers in the environmental field. In

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Normah et al.

Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

pollutant remediation using LDH, some of

the most frequently reported interactions

involve ion exchange, adsorption, and

photocatalysis [85]. In this section, three

major remediation mechanisms involving

LDH are discussed in detail, namely ion

exchange, adsorption, and photocatalysis.

These mechanisms are strongly influenced

by LDH’s structural characteristics, interlayer

chemistry, and surface properties, which

collectively determine its performance in

pollutant removal.

of pollutants [86]. As illustrated in Figure 4,

the remediation process typically begins

with the ion-exchange mechanism, in which

interlayer anions (A⁻) and water molecules

are gradually replaced by target pollutant

anions when LDH are introduced into

contaminated solutions. This exchange is

driven by electrostatic interactions between

the positively charged brucite-like layers and

the

stabilization of pollutant species within the

interlayer galleries and their effective

incoming

anions,

leading

to

the

removal from solution. The efficiency of this

process is governed by several factors

Ion Exchange

associated

with

the

physicochemical

LDH, a type of anionic clay material with a

layered structure, finds diverse applications

in pollutant remediation. The primary

advantages of LDH stem from its interlayer

anions, which can be easily replaced, exhibit

properties of the interlayer anions, including

the type and charge density of the

exchanged

anions,

interactions,

the

strength

the ratio

of

electrostatic

divalent to trivalent cations in the layers, the

ability of interlayer anions to stabilize the

structure, and the molecular masses of both

a

memory effect, and allow for the

adjustment of the distance between layers.

These properties endow LDH with excellent

adsorption capabilities toward a wide range

cations

and

anions

within

the

LDH

framework [87-88].

Figure 4. The illustration mechanism of pollutant ion exchange by LDH

Research conducted by Zhang et al. [90]

explained that MgAl-LDH functions as an

adsorbent to remove Congo Red dye using

an ion exchange mechanism. Through an ion

exchange process, this mechanism replaces

primary

mechanisms:

interlayer

ion

exchange and external surface adsorption.

In the ion exchange mechanism, the HCrO4-

complex ion derived from Cr(VI) metal

displaces NO₃, Cl^-, SO₄, and CO₃

ions,

-

2-

-

CO₃ions in the LDH interlayer with SO₃ions

serving as anions within the LDH interlayer.

from Congo Red molecules. Another study

by Li et al. [92] concluded that metal ion

adsorption on LDH occurs through two

258

Normah et al.

Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

Adsorption

occurring in the LDH adsorption process

include electrostatic interactions, anion

Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) is a

multifunctional

remediation

composition, positively charged surface,

high chemical stability, environmental

friendliness, ease of synthesis, and

biocompatibility [93], [94]. LDH has the

advantages of large pores and surface area,

as well as active adsorption sites in the

substitution

or

intercalation,

physical

material

due to

for

its

pollutant

structural

adsorption, and surface complexation [60],

[98], [99]. Electrostatic interactions between

the positively charged hydroxide layer and if

the pollutant species are negatively charged,

while

hydrogen

bonding

and

surface

complexation occur between functional

groups on the LDH surface and pollutant

molecules [78]. In addition, some pollutants

can replace interlayer anions or intercalate

into the LDH interlayer [21]. Adsorption

efficiency is greatly influenced by several

factors such as the number, type, and

strength of available adsorption sites, the

physicochemical properties of pollutants.

aqueous

phase,

which

increases

its

adsorption capacity. Adsorption involves

chemical and physical interactions [93], [94].

As reported by Song et al. [75] and Wang et

al. [77], in Figure 5, the main mechanisms

Figure 5. The illustration mechanism of pollutant adsorption by LDH

The data in Table 3 clearly demonstrate the

high capacity of LDH-based materials for a

wide range of pollutants, including dyes,

heavy metals, anions, and gases. This

performance is closely related to their

removal, adsorption is dominant for both

cationic and organic pollutants, while

photocatalysis extends LDH functionality to

degrade persistent contaminants under light

irradiation. Recent studies increasingly focus

on integrating these mechanisms within

LDH-based composites, such as combining

adjustable

interlayer

chemistry,

large

surface area, and structural stability, making

them competitive with or superior to many

conventional adsorbents.

adsorption

with

photocatalysis,

to

improve

remediation

efficiency

under

realistic environmental conditions.

Overall, the remediation mechanisms of LDH

are governed by their layered structure,

LDH can serve as an adsorbent in either

powder or granular form. Kameliya et al.

[100], LDH in granular form exhibits

superiority due to its ability to maintain

tunable

interlayer

chemistry,

and

the

presence of abundant active sites. Ion

exchange primarily contributes to anion

259

Normah et al.

Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

adsorption

properties

and

structural

maximum adsorption capacities of 867 mg/g

stability. Song et al. [95] demonstrated that

MgAl-LDH effectively removed heavy metals

such as Pb(II), Cu(II), and Cd(II), achieving

and

225

mg/g,

respectively.

This

underscores the versatile applications of

pure LDH and modified LDH in water

remediation. A concise summary of various

pollutants that LDH can adsorb is provided

in Table 3.

capacities

of

72%,

37%,

and

18%,

respectively. Furthermore, in a study by Feng

et al. [101], LDH modification with 2D metal

carbides (MXenes) significantly increased

Ni²⁺adsorption efficiency to an impressive

Photocatalysis

97.35%,

reaching 222.717 mg/g.

with

an

adsorption

capacity

Photocatalysis is a promising method for

degrading pollutants in water using light

energy. Recent advancements combine

photocatalysis with adsorption to enhance

A recent investigation by Tang et al. [102]

highlighted the threat of phosphate in water

to human health and the environment.

Efficient phosphate adsorption was achieved

using the LDH/FeOOH composite adsorbent,

displaying promising results and recyclability

up to three times. Additionally, ZnFe-LDH

contaminant

removal

efficiency.

One

example

TiO₂@Mg/Fe-LDH

research

is

the use

of

which

a

composite,

degrades toxic selenocyanate (SeCN⁻) into

oxidized forms that are then adsorbed by

LDH. This dual-function system achieved up

to 78.5% removal efficiency and followed

pseudo-second-order kinetics [103].

exhibited

commendable

adsorption

performance against anionic dyes such as

Congo Red and Orange Yellow II, with

Table 3.

Comparison of adsorbents for adsorption of some pollutants and maximum

adsorption capacity by various research groups

Adsorbent

Pollutant

Maximum Capacity

References

Congo red

90,7%

[45]

NiCo-LDH

Cr(VI)

82%

[45]

As (III)

As (IV)

CO₂

1.56 mmol/g

1.31 mmol/g

1.7424 mmol/g

769.23 mg/g

[107]

[108]

[40]

SA/MgFe-LDH

Amino Modified Mg-Al LDH

MgAl-LDH

Congo red

Ni-Al/LDH intercalated

sodium dodecyl sulfate

CNC/MgAl-LDH composite

Fe_x/Ca-Al-LDH

Methyl orange

808.8 mg/g

[109]

Tetracycline

153.3 mg/g

71.81%

[75]

3-

PO₄

[110]

[111]

[112]

[113]

ZnMgAl-LDH

Methyl orange

Phosphate

Nitrate

Cd

1251 mg/g

46.894 mg/g

37.864 mg/g

901.5 mg/g

231.3 mg/g

ZnFe-LDH@Alg

Alkaline sludge-LDH

Cu

Another study used ZnCr-LDH with different

interlayer anions (Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, CO₃²⁻) to adsorb

the dye AO7. ZnCr–SO₄–LDH exhibited the

best photocatalytic activity under visible light

with good stability over reuse cycles [104]. A

hybrid LDH/MOF composite, supported on

260

Normah et al.

Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

hydrochar and MIL-53(Al), showed >99%

degradation of various pharmaceuticals and

pesticides within 1 h under LED light, using

only 20 mg of material per 50 mL solution

[105]. Furthermore, a 2D NiAl-LDH/V₂C/PCN

Future Trends

Layered double hydroxides (LDH) possess a

range of unique structural and chemical

properties, including high ion-exchange

capacity, tunable interlayer chemistry, stable

layered structures, and the ability to form

Z-scheme

heterojunction

effectively

converted CO₂ into fuels. MXene provided

high conductivity, while PCN improved light

absorption and charge separation [106].

multifunctional

composites.

These

characteristics make LDH highly versatile

materials that can be engineered through

various modification strategies, such as

Overall,

combining

LDH

with

semiconductors (e.g., TiO₂, MOFs, MXene, g-

C₃N₄) enhances photocatalytic performance

composite

functional

formation,

species,

intercalation

and porosity

of

and

supports

sustainable

wastewater

enhancement. In addition, LDH can be

combined with other organic or inorganic

materials to to create desired structures.

Looking ahead, future research on LDH is

expected to focus on developing more

treatment applications. Table 3 summarizes

several representative studies reporting

maximum adsorption capacities of LDH-

based adsorbents toward various pollutants,

highlighting the versatility and tunability of

LDH systems in environmental applications.

advanced

synthesis

strategies

and

innovative composite designs to further

improve their functional performance in

environmental remediation and related

technologies. Indonesia holds abundant

natural resources such as minerals, biomass,

The data in Table 3 clearly demonstrate the

high capacity of LDH-based materials for a

wide range of pollutants, including dyes,

heavy metals, anions, and gases. This

performance is closely related to their

and

agricultural

waste

that

can

be

adjustable

interlayer

chemistry,

large

transformed into environmentally friendly

materials. Integrating these local resources

into the development of advanced materials

not only supports sustainable innovation but

also adds economic value at the national

surface area, and structural stability, making

them competitive with or superior to many

conventional adsorbents.

Overall, the remediation mechanisms of LDH

are governed by their layered structure,

level.

Among

emerging

techniques,

microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis

stands out as a promising method, offering

shorter synthesis times, better energy

efficiency, and more uniform LDH structures

compared to conventional approaches. By

combining the synthetic method approach

with rational material structure, future LDH

research can be a bridge between LDH

structure control as a key material for next-

tunable

interlayer

chemistry,

and

the

presence of abundant active sites. Ion

exchange primarily contributes to anion

removal, adsorption is dominant for both

cationic

and

organic

pollutants, while

photocatalysis extends LDH functionality to

degrade persistent contaminants under light

irradiation. Recent studies increasingly focus

on integrating these mechanisms within

LDH-based composites, such as combining

adsorption

improve

generation

environmental

remediation

technologies.

with

remediation

photocatalysis,

efficiency

to

under

realistic environmental conditions.

261

Normah et al.

Chempublish Journal, 9(2) 2025, 247-271

Conclusion

This article does not contain any studies

involving human or animal subjects.

Layered double hydroxides (LDH) exhibit

unique structural characteristics that make

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